In autumn 2023 as well, the Hydrogen Technology Expo was again the event you had to be at. For the third time in a row, the British organizer Trans-Global Events Ltd was able to dramatically increase the number of exhibitors as well as visitors – which is why the trade fair halls of the Hanseatic city on the Weser (Bremen) will no longer be sufficient in 2024. The move to Hamburg this year is therefore inevitable and had been predicted early on by H2-international (see H2-international Feb. 2023).
The trend is unmistakable: More and more companies from the mechanical engineering, electrical and chemical industries are flooding the hydrogen market. Accordingly, a large number of completely new exhibitors could be found in the four trade fair halls in Bremen. Among them were numerous unknown names, but also heavyweights such as Saudi Aramco, ExxonMobil or ITM Power.
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After 180 exhibitors in the first and 350 in the second year, this time there were over 550 – in 2024, there should be at least 100 more. The number of visitors increased from 5,000 in the previous year to over 10,000.
Moving towards mass production
Companies like the chemicals corporation Gore had explicitly “chosen this trade show in Europe” because “Europe is furthest along.” Nouchine Humbert, Global Marketing Director of W.L. Gore, told H2-international, “This is a market where we expect strong growth.” Referred to is particularly the electrolysis sector, because in comparison fuel cells need “many more square meters than electrolyzers.”
Sufficient production capacity is available to the North American company – in Japan. The production lines there are enough for another five years, asserted Rainer Enggruber, director of the division PEM/water/electrolysis products. Gigawatt announcements are therefore not a challenge for the membrane manufacturer, it was confidently stated.
New tubular reactor
An innovation was shown by the Hebmüller Group. Sales director Marc Hebmüller presented the prototype of the HydroGenMHD (see Fig. 1), an H2 generation device from One Scientific of Johnson City, Tennessee. The company Hebmüller is the European licensee of the US system developer that developed this compact tubular catalyst, in whose magnetohydrodynamic chamber hydrogen is generated upon splitting off of oxygen from water vapor.
Marc Hebmüller explained: “This innovative technology employs a unique system where superheated steam is subjected to a catalyst and intense magnetic fields generated through the MHD process. These magnetic fields induce controlled plasma dynamics within the feedstock, facilitating the dissociation of molecules into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.”
Stack based on circuit boards
A completely new concept for the production of fuel cells was presented by Bramble Energy: a fuel cell stack based on printed circuit board technology. The British company founded in 2017 relies here on the plastic FR4, which provides the necessary stability, and copper as a heat as well as electricity conductor. Between two circuit boards is one membrane each, which means that bipolar plates can be dispensed with entirely. Instead, a monopolar plate constitutes a single cell, of which several are then stacked.
The technology readiness level Carsten Pohlmann, director for business development (see Fig. 2), puts at TRL 9, and the price per kilowatt at 100 USD. First tests in a Renault demonstrator and with a 100 kW system for a double-decker bus are already underway.
Carsten Pohlmann presented in Bremen for the first time the circuit board cell from Bramble
The next Hydrogen Technology Expo Europe will take place October 23 and 24, 2024 on the fairgrounds of Messe Hamburg. It therefore will overlap by one day with WindEnergy.
The Apex Group is expanding its management team from five to six people. Starting the new year, Axel Funke will be chief technology officer, and will be responsible for the division project handling and engineering. The 58-year-old mechanical engineer has been active in plant engineering for 30 years, and previously worked for companies such as Bilfinger, Thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions and Linde. He directed, among other things, large international projects in the energy sector and, for example, while at Thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions participated in the planning and design of the project HyLIOS, which included the delivery of a 2.2‑GW electrolyzer to Neom, Saudi Arabia.
Apex has belonged for one year to the Exceet Group. Roland Lienau, chairman of Exceet, said: “Following the recent appointment of Bert Althaus as CFO, the management is now staffed across all areas with top personnel. Also on the operational side, Apex has hired more than 20 engineers since the acquisition by Exceet in January 2023. We are therefore equipped to realize our growth strategy.”
The numbers for the third quarter and the outlook promise a very exciting future for Hyzon Motors and its 200‑kW FC modules for trucks. Series production will begin in the second half of 2024. The activities will be concentrated at one location in the USA. Hyzon with its subsidiary is withdrawing from Europe. That is the right step, since a young company should concentrate on the market that is most important to the company, in order to use the limited capital resources in a targeted way.
Hyzon, however, is still looking for a fulfillment partner in Europe who can independently bring to use the company’s FC stacks, comparable to the partnership with Fontaine Modification in the USA or one like Quantron with Ballard Power. Hyzon is focusing on the USA and Australia/New Zealand, where a hydrogen-powered waste collection truck was recently delivered to Remondis. The FC modules are produced in the USA, which makes sense given the subsidies.
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Hyzon will also benefit from the development of the H2 hubs, because the MACH2 project in the Midwest lies in the vicinity of its own production facility and belong to the projects of the DOE subsidized as part of the seven billion-dollar hydrogen hub program (awards of one billion dollars for each hub).
At the same time, Hyzon announced that they have agreed with the SEC to a payment of 25 million USD, payable in three installments over the next few years. This concludes this unspeakable issue, which is based on the misconduct of the former board of directors (accounting scandal). The cash burn per month can be massively reduced, and for ramp-up of module production only about five million USD is required. At the end of the third quarter are still 137.8 million USD in the bank, at a capital requirement of 10 million USD per month.
With the parent company and majority shareholder Horizon from Singapore, the IP license agreement was able to be extended until 2030 and could also be extended to other activities: So Hyzon is also planning to introduce new 300‑kW FC single stacks into the stationary energy supply of data centers and hospitals. Ballard Power and Bloom Energy are already active in this area.
Parker Meeks, CEO of Hyzon, responded to a question about why his company was focusing exclusively on fuel cells and not electric vehicles: „The experience with battery-electric trucks for many has been one in which the usable range is not what they imagined, especially when going uphill, which is the case even in the Los Angeles Basin. If you know the area, if you’re going somewhere where there’s a long distance, you’ll probably have to drive up a hill. Fuel cell trucks do not lose power, and this is the crucial factor that makes them particularly suitable for heavy transport as opposed to transporting drinks.”
Summary: In the USA Hyzon is working on establishing and expanding capacities in order to ramp up production of the 200‑kW FC modules. The partnership with Fontaine Modification suggests that a large sales market is emerging here, as Fontaine rebuilds trucks or retrofits vehicles and Hyzon as a technology partner in this comes perfectly into use with its FC modules. In this context, we can also well imagine that Fontaine through parent company Marmon Holdings has a direct stake in Hyzon. There will surely be capital measures (new issue of shares), and the entry of a strategic partner would be the ideal way to achieve this.
A highly speculative, very interesting investment. Hyzon is suitable as an admixture to Ballard Power and Nikola Motors, as these three companies can be jointly assigned to the area of fuel cells in commercial vehicles.
Disclaimer
Each investor must always be aware of their own risk when investing in shares and should consider a sensible risk diversification. The FC companies and shares mentioned here are small and mid cap, i.e. they are not standard stocks and their volatility is also much higher. This report is not meant to be viewed as purchase recommendations, and the author holds no liability for your actions. All information is based on publicly available sources and, as far as assessment is concerned, represents exclusively the personal opinion of the author, who focuses on medium- and long-term valuation and not on short-term profit. The author may be in possession of the shares presented here.
The current situation of the German government appears to be a state of desolation: The constitutional court did not play along as hoped – albeit by the narrowest of margins – and has awarded the Ampel Coalition a 60-billion-euro gap in the budget.
Out of this, a desolate situation for the energy industry could also rise, since many projects that were to be financed via the planned fund for climate action and clean energy Klima- und Transformationsfonds (KTF) have come into question, justifiably or not. The uncertainty is great.
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The situation beforehand was already tense. Decisions from Brussels, for example, have had a long wait time. This was the case with the EU energy directive RED II, RED III and also the IPCEI projects – even though RED III was published on October 31, 2023. If things go well, at the end of the year still, the 37th ordinance on the implementation of the German emissions reduction act (37th BImSchV) could be updated – after twelve years.
This waiting has not exactly encouraged many investors to make their money available for projects for the future. The FID (final investment decision) especially for numerous electrolysis projects is still pending, because the framework conditions are not seen as sufficiently secure.
Not without reason, numerous companies took part in the tender for the Important Projects of Common European Interest. In doing so, they are relying on EU member state funds to reduce their own financial risk.
The price they have to pay for these “gifted” state funds is that they have to abide by the giver’s rules. It also means that they have to put up with it when a decision takes longer in Brussels.
The loud lamentation therefore has a bit of hypocrisy to it, since after all nobody forced them to apply for an IPCEI. They could all have started much earlier on such projects, even at their own risk. But now some of them are sitting there complaining that their originally planned IPCEI project is no longer viable in the form applied for, although it was they themselves who had decided to take this path.
Again and again in this context have there been warnings that companies based in Germany could move abroad to where the framework conditions are supposedly better. Perhaps there are individual companies that will actually take this step. Exactly what their motives are, we will probably never know, but it should be clear that such a decision does not depend solely on the processing time in Brussels but is multifactorial.
And yes, one or two projects will probably never be realized – for whatever reason. Westküste100 is such a project. As a real-world lab it has done valuable work, but “H2 Westküste GmbH will not make a positive investment decision for the planned electrolyzer” can be read on their homepage. And “The reason for it is especially the increased investment costs.”
That may hurt one or the other player, since such a scenario may also threaten other projects. But isn’t it better to stop a recognizably uneconomical project at the right time than to desperately hold on to it and to go through with it against your better judgment? Isn’t it better to acknowledge the altered framework conditions by the now two wars and current energy emergency, and to recalculate?
Because Westküste100 won’t continue does not mean that the energy transition has been canceled, that we are not switching to renewable energies and hydrogen after all. Just because a few companies will produce elsewhere in the future does not mean that value creation will no longer take place in Germany.
The political commitment is there: German economy minister Robert Habeck as well as numerous minister-presidents of the federal states recently emphasized the enormous importance of H2 projects in particular. In addition, a startup scene has now established itself in Germany, which is pushing its way onto the market with new, innovative ideas. Here, investors are called to recognize their potential and make advance investments now at their own risk – without subsidies.
I don’t want to refer to the American e-car manufacturer again, but there exist – even in Europe – players who with a little instinct or a lot of money can make new technologies marketable at the right time.
The energy transition is a gigantic challenge – for everyone. Who, if not Germany, would be better placed to exemplarily show the way and offer suitable products? Instead of seeing the enormous potential that lies in this global upheaval, however, many in this country remain stuck in “German Angst.” It’s bad enough that this term (according to Wikipedia, “typical German hesitancy”) is now commonplace around the world.
The motto should therefore be: “Recognize and leverage potentials to shape a sustainable future together.”
Sometimes a rooftop walk is all it takes to get an overview of the essential systems for the energy transition and climate protection: On the technology center of the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, 26 men and women, mostly renewables professionals from the Turkish city of Izmir, stand between solar modules, red steel hydrogen bottles and a pilot plant for capturing carbon dioxide from the air. Everything they see provokes lively interest and copious photos, including the view across to the nearby research wind farm. Here, in the Bergedorf area of Hamburg, the delegation from the German-Turkish chamber of industry and commerce AHK Türkei is able to observe firsthand how the outdoor components work together with the equipment within the building – such as the electrolyzer and the methanation plant. In a way, it’s like the energy transition in miniature.
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Not that there won’t be such plants in Turkey, especially since the country published its own hydrogen strategy at the start of this year. Like Germany, Turkey intends to use hydrogen to defossilize its domestic industry. Yet the Izmir engineers are visibly impressed by the system integration and process optimization in Hamburg, resulting in detailed questioning of the scientists from the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences or HAW.
While, on the one hand, the trip is a technical information-gathering exercise, the visit by delegates from Turkey’s third largest city to key renewables projects and organizations in the Hamburg metropolitan region also acts a way to initiate joint energy transition projects. The area around Izmir has ambitions to become a center point for renewable energy and green hydrogen. Similar to Hamburg, the city on the Aegean Sea and its surrounding region is characterized by its port as well as its industrial and commercial activities. Other cities and regions in Turkey which want to position themselves for hydrogen include Istanbul, Antalya and the southern Marmara area.
In January 2023, Turkey’s ministry for energy and natural resources presented strategies for expanding hydrogen technologies – with a focus on green hydrogen. The intention is to reach a capacity of 2 gigawatts by the year 2030; this will then rise to 5 gigawatts by 2035 and 70 gigawatts by 2053. As a starting point, those targets seem rather low. It is likely, however, that these will be further increased. After all, Turkey does not only want to produce hydrogen locally to decarbonize its own industry but, as the AHK Türkei explained when asked: “Excess green hydrogen is to be exported.”
German-Turkish collaboration
In keeping with this aim, German economy minister Robert Habeck and Turkish energy minister Fatih Dönmez signed a letter of intent in October 2022 in Berlin “relating to closer collaboration on green hydrogen matters,” as a spokesman for the German economy ministry explained. “The conclusion of the agreement coincided with the fourth German-Turkish energy forum, an important platform for dialog between representatives from politics, business and civil society of both countries within the climate and energy field.”
To support Turkey in climate change mitigation, Germany is making EUR 200 million available through loans from the German state-owned investment and development bank KfW. According to the German economy ministry, the loans “are to be made available to the market via Turkish partner banks and are to be used in particular for funding renewable energy and energy efficiency in Turkey. The International Climate Initiative will make a further EUR 20 million available for improved financing terms, particularly for innovative climate protection measures.”
Fig. 3: View of the electrolyzer in the CC4E
Largest solar plant in Europe
And because renewable electricity is needed for the production of green hydrogen, Turkey is planning to expand its wind power capacity to almost 30 gigawatts by 2035. An even sharper increase is proposed for solar energy, which is envisaged to grow from the 9.4 gigawatts calculated in 2022 to around 53 gigawatts in 2035. In early May, operation began at the biggest solar power plant in Europe, including Asia Minor, an event that went mostly undetected by the German public. The plant, located in the Konya province of central Turkey, has a capacity of 1.35 gigawatts and is also one of the largest facilities of its kind in the world. About 3 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity is expected to be generated every year at the photovoltaic plant in Karapınar. That’s enough to meet the needs of 2 million people in Turkey, the company Kalyon PV has reported.
With the help of sun, wind, hydropower, geothermal and biomass, the country could completely cover its own electricity demand in the future, according to an analysis by the Turkish hydrogen society NHA. Furthermore, it states that green hydrogen will first help decarbonize domestic industry, especially steel, cement and fertilizer production, so that the country is then ultimately in a position to export hydrogen, which is globally sought after as a base material and an energy storage medium.
German cooperation partners needed
“For Germany companies, there is potential in terms of know-how, project development and technological solutions,” explained the AHK Türkei. The actual size of the potential in the southeastern European nation, which, in any case, is more than twice the landmass of Germany, can already be seen in the current state of play for renewables: Despite its size and favorable wind conditions, the installed capacity of its wind plants, totaling 11.4 gigawatts in 2022, is still relatively modest. A chance, then, for the German wind industry to form business partnerships with Turkish companies? Yes, was the answer from the delegation in Hamburg, and by that the participants do not mean just large system manufacturers, but also small- and medium-size enterprises, suppliers and service providers.
“Following the announcement of expansion targets for offshore wind, the Turkish wind market is gaining new momentum and significance for the export of German technology and know-how,” confirms Jan Rispens, CEO of industry network Renewable Energy Hamburg, whose membership runs to around 240 organizations from the northern part of Germany. “For many years, Turkey has been a major wind market for German- and Hamburg-based companies.” For instance, Nordex, TÜV Nord and EnBW have operations in the country, be it through their own subsidiaries or by engaging in joint ventures with Turkish business partners.
But the changeover from traditional energy sources to renewable forms will take time. In the past, the country has spent vast sums of money on importing fossil fuels, primarily natural gas and oil. “Importing energy cost around USD 97 billion last year alone,” says Yıldız Onur, commercial attaché in the Turkish consulate general in Hamburg and who accompanied the Izmir delegation. As a result, costs compared with the previous year have risen by nearly 90 percent, she states, adding that it therefore makes financial sense to concentrate more on domestic energy production in order to lessen dependence on imports.
Fig. 4: Methanation plant in the CC4E
Closeness to Russia
Famously, one of the ways President Erdoğan’s government is seeking to produce more of its own energy is through the use of nuclear power. At the end of April, he inaugurated his country’s first atomic power plant, built by the Russian state enterprise Rosatom, which explains why Russia’s leader Vladimir Putin took part in the ceremony via video. As it happened, the event took place on the same day that polling stations opened in Germany as well as in other countries for Turkish expatriates to cast their vote in Turkey’s election. Erdoğan also took the opportunity of the nuclear power plant’s inauguration to announce the expansion of atomic power and the exploitation of new gas reserves.
Turkish opposition alliance CHP was, however, not opposed in principle to nuclear energy, and is also not against the exploration of new gas fields in the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the opposition did criticize the dependence on Russia and instead wanted to focus on “Turkish technology.” New coal-fired power plants, though, should not be built. According to its policy, the CHP is concentrating on pursuing a green energy transition in all sectors, including agriculture.
Although the May 2023 election mandated the old Turkish government – there is indeed no way of avoiding green hydrogen. At least that is the firm opinion of entrepreneur Ali Köse, not least because of the European Union’s Green Deal and the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism, a measure that would require companies in future to make equalization payments for carbon dioxide emissions. Köse is a founder and board member of the Turkish hydrogen association H2DER and CEO of the company H2Energy Solutions. His company’s goal is to make Turkey “fit” for green hydrogen and to export it to Germany. The company, for instance, is currently working on a hydrogen mobility project in Istanbul.
Köse has observed that other companies in this field are likewise sounding out the Turkish market. They are linking up and building partnerships. What is missing, however, is the framework that will provide planning certainty for investors. And, in his view, even the expansion of rooftop solar energy systems is still hampered by bureaucracy. “In Turkey, fewer roofs are fitted with PV than in Germany,” says Köse, who regularly travels between the two countries. “Due to the solar radiation level here, every megawatt of installed PV capacity generates roughly double the amount of electricity as in Germany.”
Hydrogen fuel cell systems have significant advantages over established technical solutions for both motive and stationary applications. They are set apart particularly by their qualities of zero-emission operation, long life and high achievable efficiencies. However, their relatively high purchase price often deters potential users. To reduce costs, bipolar plates intended for mass-production are to be designed with as little material as possible. Thanks to an innovative cooling concept, applications can be made not only less expensive but also smaller and lighter.
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Reducing the installation space increases the power density of the system and raises the heat flow density. This creates huge challenges when it comes to efficiently controlling the temperature of fuel cell systems. In addition to established air and liquid cooling solutions, cooling that occurs through the change in the coolant’s state is an approach that shows much promise. By purposefully configuring the geometric surface properties of bipolar plates, greater amounts of heat can be dissipated while also enabling a targeted adjustment of the temperature distribution along the bipolar plate. The HZwo:FRAME joint project entitled “Innovative cooling systems for fuel cells” has successfully managed to develop a cooling concept based on the phase transition of a coolant and to demonstrate its function on a laboratory scale.
Greater heat transfer needed
Effective and precise control of temperature is vital for the efficient operation of a fuel cell system. Commercially available fuel cell stacks currently offer two cooling methods: air cooling and liquid cooling [1].
Air cooling is characterized principally by its simplicity of design. The technical complexity is much lower compared with liquid-based cooling systems since no other elements are required aside from a fan. Its possible uses are limited chiefly by the relatively small quantity of heat that can be dissipated. Furthermore, air-cooled systems commonly lead to highly uneven temperature distribution within the fuel cells which can negatively affect their efficiency and long-term stability. Most stacks with a power output of under 5 kilowatts are actively air-cooled, for example in stationary applications.
Liquid cooling has established itself as the prevalent form of temperature control in fuel cell stacks with a total electrical output of more than 5 kilowatts, for instance in vehicles. In liquid-cooled fuel cell systems, the coolant is pumped around a circuit through special cooling channels which are integrated into the fuel cells. The heat that is absorbed here must then be transferred back to the environment in a downstream heat exchanger.
Current developments are increasingly focused on thin metal bipolar plates as this type of plate lends itself to future mass production at favorable cost. At the same time, the power density of fuel cells can be increased, thus opening up new application areas and creating possibilities for miniaturizing fuel cell systems. Given this shift in development, the aforementioned conventional cooling solutions, based on convection alone, will be insufficient in future to dissipate the necessary amount of heat via the surface areas that remain.
Two-phase cooling (also referred to as evaporative cooling) makes it possible to reach the high heat flow densities required, i.e., the flow of thermal energy relative to the unit area and cooling time for miniaturized fuel cells. This cooling process exploits the effect whereby a large amount of energy – the latent heat of evaporation – is needed when the coolant changes into a gaseous state. This energy is extracted from the fuel cell during the phase transition on the surface of the bipolar plates, thus helping significantly to cool the fuel cell. Since this powerful cooling concept relies on low volume flows of coolant, the output required from the necessary peripheral equipment, such as pumps, can be reduced considerably when compared with air or liquid cooling [2].
Laser cutting
The research was motivated particularly by the huge potential that evaporative cooling offers in terms of the efficient heat management of fuel cell systems. Here, the attention was focused on metal bipolar plates since they are a key functional element in the fuel cell. As part of the development process, design concepts for the new cooling method had to be devised and implemented, such as the simulation-based calculation of optimized coolant flow or the design of durable gaskets. In the end, it was decided to produce the metal bipolar plates from a 100-micron-thick initial sheet using forming techniques and to then modify the plates to meet the requirements of the new cooling concept.
One project objective was to achieve a homogeneous temperature distribution on the bipolar plate. To reach this goal, a suitable surface functionalization was chosen as the method for influencing the heat transfer coefficient. This technique was applied by introducing microstructures in the form of single-pulse laser cuts using laser beam machining. The effect of these kinds of microstructures is, firstly, to enlarge the real surface area of the bipolar plate and, secondly, to increase the number of nucleation sites for bubble formation during the phase transition.
In connection with this, the microstructure density (number of microstructures per unit area), because of its relevance as a design parameter, was investigated by varying the spatial gap between the individual pulse cuts. Abb. 1 shows the results of microstructuring the test pieces at different pulse gaps of between 5 microns and 35 microns.
Proven at lab level
A laboratory testing area was developed and set up to examine the heat transfer of the modified bipolar plates (see fig. 2). The test fixture was designed so that the technical conditions would correspond to those of a real-world application and could be altered within a range of realistic load variations. A transparent process chamber and a bipolar plate envelop the cooling channels, thus enabling visual identification of flow and boiling processes occurring in the coolant. In addition, three shielded thermocouples were positioned centrally in the direction of flow and spaced evenly across the bipolar plate. These were used to measure the temperature distribution in the coolant.
Fig. 2: Test fixture: process chamber with integrated bipolar plate and temperature sensors
The experiments used different types of plate, including a stamped reference bipolar plate and a laser-structured, coated bipolar plate. The microstructure density was varied depending on the direction and length of flow in order to achieve the most even temperature distribution possible along the direction of flow.
Fig. 3: Structured bipolar plate with microstructure density reducing in the flow direction (left); detailed view of wave structure (center); detailed view of microstructuring (right)
The test fixture was used to run experiments to demonstrate and investigate the influence of surface functionalization on phase transition behavior. Here, the boiling processes on the structured surface were less distinctive than on the unstructured reference plate (see fig. 4). In addition, the measurements using the temperature sensors confirmed that the maximum temperatures arising could be lowered through surface functionalization of the bipolar plate. What is more, the temperature distribution along the direction of coolant flow was much more even: The temperature ∆T along the structured and coated plate was lower for all parameter sets examined in comparison with the reference bipolar plate.
Fig. 4: Results of the visual examination: intensity of bubble movement (dark-blue areas) in the flow field of the reference plate (top) and the structured and coated plate (bottom) for the process parameters (incoming coolant temperature and heat flow density of the bipolar plate): 78 °C and 0.5 W/cm2 (left); 78 °C and 2 W/cm2 (right)
It was thus possible to prove that the thermodynamic properties of bipolar plates, particularly in the evaporation zones, can be influenced and modified through microstructuring. The project’s findings represent a further step toward achieving fuel cell stacks that are both cost-effective and space-efficient.
About the project
The project gathered essential and relevant knowledge for the design and technical realization of a fuel cell stack with metal bipolar plates based on the evaporation principle. The work was validated under realistic conditions. The following project partners worked in cooperation to achieve the project objectives: WätaS, Fischer Werkzeugbau, CeWOTec, the Department of Micromanufacturing Technology and the Department of Advanced Powertrains at TU Chemnitz.
Funding and project management: European Regional Development Fund (EFRE) / Sächsische Aufbaubank (SAB)
Reference(s) [1] A. Fly and R. H. Thring, A comparison of evaporative and liquid cooling methods for fuel cell vehicles, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 41, no. 32, pp. 14217–14229, 2016, ISBN: 0360-3199, ISSN: 03603199, DOI:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.089 [2] G. Zhang and S. G. Kandlikar, A critical review of cooling techniques in proton exchange membrane fuel cell stacks, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 2412–2429, Feb. 2012, ISSN: 03603199, DOI:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.11.010
Authors:
Igor Danilov, M. Sc, igor.danilov@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Ingo Schaarschmidt, M. Sc, ingo.schaarschmidt@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
Dr.-Ing. Philipp Steinert, philipp.steinert@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
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